Monday, July 9, 2012

The Art of Golf (a story of a girl Caddy engaged in one of the luxurious Golf Clubs of Indonesia)




 I don’t play golf; not because I can’t, but because I’ve not been able to generate enough passion to chase a small white ball through undulating meadows, gullies, coves, sand bunkers, water bodies and all else. Devoid of passion, my patience would probably give way to irritation and frustration. My golfer friends opine that the Golf is like meditating while walking. I agree somewhat. It must be so, or else how do golfers shut out the business of living whilst pursuing measured trajectories to static holes? 
On one of his journeys to the 18 holes, a friend motivated me into accompanying him to the picturesque and serene Permata Sentul – a prime golf course in Indonesia. Along the fairways stand rows of well-kept trees, beyond which are terraced hillsides punctuated with colourful, bright flowers. Amidst this heavenly ambience lies an air of innocent glamour: lady caddies dressed in white and yellow, each accompanying a golfer in his electric golf cart.
The first few holes of my friend’s game were uneventful; at least for me. By the 4th or the 5th I’d warmed up to Ida Fitri, the boisterous and flamboyant caddy accompanying my friend who’s a rather serious golfer with a somewhat glum countenance. He examines every golfing move with as much dedication as he would a secret and sensitive file in the government. Ida laughed at one of his shots landing in the sand bunkers despite all the focused concentration of an archer. “What’s there to laugh, at?” admonished my friend.
“I knew you’d land there because you missed out on the heavy south eastern breeze that changed the trajectory of the ball, Sir”
“So why didn’t you tell me? And prevail over me?” grumbled my friend.
“I did, but you were confident of your moves Sir”, replied Ida, her eyes clouding as if wandering into the past. “You know what Sir, it’s very important to be able to spot the direction of the breeze in our lives too” she continued. “My father couldn’t do it and despite being a powerful confidante of the last regime, he landed in jail for ten years…leaving us, his family, deserted and totally deprived”.
I intervened, asking Ida what had caused such a disaster.
“Well, when the First Lady wanted to help my father, his obsessive loyalty refused her help. He asked her to keep away from matters of polity”. Turning to my friend she added, “Sir, if you need to come out of that sand bunker, you’ve got to stop sulking.”
“What do you mean?” countered my even more irritated friend.
“Nothing Sir, nothing except that you need to use the right club to deal with this bunker”, advised Ida.
“Oh but I am.”
“No sir, you’re not”, suggested Ida. “This sixty degree club you want to use has a very heavy bottom that’ll kick lot of sand which will make the ball jump really high and stop it from travelling the distance.”
“Are you saying this is the wrong club to use?” insisted my friend.
“Sir, sand is of many types. This one’s laced with clay and tends to cling to the ball. You need to strike at it with great force, and for that you need the right club.” Ida paused before continuing, “My father advised the President to move towards democratization, but the President was stuck in the clay of his own self consuming sand bunker and Aya (father) used the wrong club to try and clear it”. 
“Oh I see, so now you’re equating human psychology with a game of golf?” said my visibly annoyed friend.
“No Pak, I’m not” Ida replied gently and with deference. “Please don’t read me wrong. I’m just trying to share my experience of life with you. I just wish you to apply human behavioral patterns to your game.”
My friend relented and took the club that Ida offered him. With one smooth stroke, the ball reached the hole. “Yes! Good God, I did it,” exclaimed my ecstatic friend.
"Not you Pak! It was the right club and right application!"
“Oh well, just let me play the next hole in peace, will you?”
But Ida continued unperturbed, “there’s that undulating land mass ahead and it causes illusions of distances being lesser than they are Pak. So beware. It is a hundred meters, so use force with an appropriate club.”
My friend reluctantly glared back, “Are you sure it shan’t land in the water body past it?”
"No Pak! If you play for hundred meters, you’ll be right on the greens!" said Ida, with clinical precision.
“My mother knew they’d be coming for us. She dispatched my Kak (older sister) to India to her employers requesting them to keep her safe, and sent me to our Hindu relatives in Bali where the Hindu minority was still safe against the persecutory moves of the regime. From there we migrated to Penang in Malaysia”, continued Ida.
While my friend was focused on planning and executing his further strategy, I was lying engrossed in the sand bunkers of my own emotions, looking for an opportunity to dig out the rest of Ida’s strange story. Anxiety laced my thoughts about her family and their destiny. Was fate too like a golf course: illusory, deceptive and uncertain?
My friend executed an experienced shot that landed safely on the greens of the next course with the deceptive sand bunker well out of the way. An English folk melody began escaping his lips and confidence finally seemed to be his as he walked towards the formality of driving the ball into a rather difficult looking hole.
An equally relaxed Ida too was by now humming a popular Indonesian melody, “Jangan Berhanti Mencintaiku…” (Don’t forget to love me). With her beautiful mane caressing her back she seemed to have obliterated all scars of hardship. My mind wondered if she’d inherited her mother’s wisdom along with the apparent beauty that she certainly had. No doubt her stay at Bali was therapeutic since Balinese are known to be respectful towards human life. Was Ida’s melody related to her past? What was her present like?
My friend had meanwhile landed the ball in some foliage. Irritation laced his angry outburst, “What’s this Ida? Why haven’t I cleared the cove despite the swing and the follow through?”
Ida was her helpful, calm self. “Pak, you have removed your cap despite being against the sun. How could your shot succeed?”
“So what?” glared my belligerent friend.
“Pak, the glare of the sun makes our eyes squint, and that restricts the free movement of the swing. In golf you have to be conscious of your body’s tiniest involuntary reflexes”, explained Ida.
“My Ibu came back to Jakarta to apologize for my father’s mistakes. But the moment she faced the chief, she was immobilized by her own nervousness. Statue-like, she forgot her salutations to the Chief who ordered her to be jailed. Thanks to the efforts of the First Lady, my Ibu was released on the assurance that she would live with us – her daughters – in a quiet, unchallenging and disgraced manner”, reminisced Ida. “Your confidence against the sun was somewhat like my Ibu’s action, Pak”.
In the past I’d heard tales of gory repression by the previous draconian regime; elderly Indonesians who’d suffered and witnessed the horrors spoke in hushed whispers of crushed lives and battered dreams. My thoughts flew to Ida’s Ibu: how had that lady – once the toast of the charmed circle – managed to adapt to her changed circumstances?  Did she think of suicide? Or did the presence of her daughters lend endurance to her?
Pained though he may have been with Ida’s story, my friend recomposed himself for his next move. Golfers cannot afford distraction; it can ruin an entire day. My friend soon hit a birdie, which ensured the return of his confidence and lost joy. No wonder they say Golf is a meditating game: one good shot and all woes dissipate.
“Bravo, Pak, bravo!” exclaimed an excited Ida, “You are indeed a pro!” Lithe and lissome, I’d noticed that her gestures reflected the joy that she felt at my friends’ shot. Ten holes had been crossed and I was a tad sweaty and impatient, but the expectation of Ida’s story kept me going. A perceptive Ida soon got me cool water from the golf cart accompanying us. And then she proposed to click our picture: I presume to bring me some excitement but my friend presumed it would ruin his concentration. “Come on Pak, be a sport. This’ll help you rest your limbs and renew your focus”, pleaded Ida with her trademark enthusiasm and my friend’s mobile camera in hand, all ready to shoot.
A caddie is like a (wo)man-Friday on the course. Always well versed with everything that may need to be done for the golfer. Ida was used to handling my friends’ calls and messages while he played to avoid distractions. Now she was also creating memories through his phone.
“You know Pak, my Ibu destroyed all those photos of pomp and regalia that we’d once lived with. But she kept those that were of our togetherness, joy and small happy moments. Ibu believed that it was these moments that needed to be cherished, “said Ida softly, as she gently underlined the need for the picture that she was soon to click.
While I ruminated over the prophetic anecdote of Ida's mother, my friend prepared himself to go for the most difficult hole to negotiate. He had to cross two treacherous water bodies, one of which was partially covered with the long shadows of trees, to reach the greens of the twelfth hole. He was staring pensively at the ball. I wondered why he was nervous. After all, golf creates its own benchmarks; there are no opponents to defeat. Was he distracted by Ida’s story? Unlikely, since golfers are known to tackle stress in most adverse situations. Ida too looked serious. I realized that a caddie’s life is somewhat entwined with the golfer’s moves.
“Contrasting vision can impair your judgment Pak, don’t look at the shade, focus on the light instead, as it’s easier to focus on. That way even if you falter with your swing, you’ll still land on the peripheral soft ground that’ll stop the ball from rolling into the water”, she suggested yet again. “My Ibu too had to focus on the mercies doled out by Bapak Presiden. There was no other way out, you see, that’s why I say that you must see the light and not the shadows”, she continued lost in thought.
For once my friend did as she said and the ball landed safely on the soft peripheral ground. Fist raised in disbelief he thanked Ida.
 "You seem to know both the game and the course so well Ida! Didn't you ever think of becoming a golfer yourself?"
"No Pak! Knowledge only enriches you with principles; execution requires training, which I lack”, Ida confessed candidly. “Both training and skills matter a lot in life. When in exile, my Ibu in Penang and my sister in Bengaluru, both used their skills and basic training to survive. Ibu taught at a local school and my sister practiced the art of batik. Without their skills we wouldn’t have been able to survive Pak”.
I could finally sense my friend warming up to Ida’s story, probably because it was emphasizing the significance of skills at a time when the last few holes would severely test his skills on the course.
A sudden sharp burst of rain smacked me out of my reverie. We ran towards a ‘bale-bale’ (a wooden flat bed) under a canopy of trees. On a golf course umbrellas are useful only against the sun; the rain defeats them completely. As Ida started to point out the beautiful multihued butterflies around us, I couldn’t but help notice the charm that she was endowed with: a beautiful expressive face, ringed with golden brown hair and her lemon yellow youthful sun kissed complexion. A rainbow had quaintly formed a halo behind her as she hummed “Janghan berenti mencintaiku….(don’t forget to love me…) in her pretty yellow and white dress.
Captivated as I was with the serenity of the hills, the foliage, Ida and her story, I looked at my friend. He seemed completely oblivious to everything yet again. I knew that golfers often miss out on the beauty of a bountiful nature on their path towards a perfect score: the visuals of wild flowers and planted shrubbery and the sounds of rare birds are all dispensable to a golfer immersed in his game.
The rain was subsiding and my friend hurriedly took a shot and what a blunder it was. Sluggish from the break, his focus must have wandered for he hit the ball far away from his intended trajectory. Crestfallen, he turned to Ida who patiently explained that the wild swing must have been the result of hitting a wet ball with a wet club. Yet, what was done was done.
Dampened by this setback, it took my friend four more strokes to finish his fourteenth hole. Embarrassed and dejected, it seemed my friend would give up at this moment.
Tuned as she was to my friend’s mental frequency, Ida attempted to restore his confidence through her tale. “Bapak Presiden started mobilising foreign funds for the transmigration of Muslims to far flung and sparsely populated areas in the name of development. My father dutifully informed him that this was creating a deep suspicion in the minds of ethnic minorities and that peace could be breached in the days to come. But Pak, just as the rain had left its damaging presence on the ball and the club so was the residue of the greed of foreign funds on Bapak Presiden’s mind. My father misjudged this factor and his moves backfired, landing him in jail”.
“Later, in 1998 the winds of change started blowing through our nation and the forces of Reformasi (Reformation) declared my father innocent and freed him. However he was a broken man, silent and numb within his soul. The love of his motherland lured him back to the country and he started teaching with my mother. They taught ethics, something they had practiced well in life. Once again he was decorated and awarded for his contribution to education in ‘Pesantren’ and was invited to be part of the local government. He politely declined and continued teaching the importance of values in a modern society. And then he breathed his last”.
A heavy silence hung above us all. Ida’s moving tale had stupefied us. As if to underline the way out of a difficult situation, Ida surmised, “My father always said that the ugliest designs of destiny encourage the weak to surrender and escape ignominiously whilst the strong learn the art of course correction in their lives”.
I could sense the recharging of my friend’s depleted morale. Guided by a devoted Ida – who had politely accepted my condolences without unnecessary remorse – he was not just recovering from his emotional abyss but was also bettering his game. The sixteenth hole was conquered but my friend’s score was still tarnished. After all, a ‘par’ player cannot easily digest even a ‘one-over’ in golf.
Hole 17 was dreadful and intimidating. It was in a softly patched valley flanked by sand bunkers on either side; the ingredients for a visual deception were nicely laid out.
Sensing my friend’s discomfort Ida came forward, “Error is a part of human nature, Pak. You should focus on the task at hand and concentrate on the hole. My Ibu knew the strength of my father’s character as also his insistence on transparency regarding foreign funds. Because of his impeccable sense of propriety, my father could not turn a blind eye to wrong decisions as he felt that silence was being complicit to a crime. He was warmed many a times yet he landed in jail. That was part of nature’s design Pak. After all you cannot run this world; you can merely fulfill your assignments to the best of your ability and sincerity”.
Ida’s measured words seemed to have hit home. My friend seemed to be gazing into the seventeenth hole, oblivious of all the illusions surrounding it. His swing was superb, a rare feat indeed; he landed cleanly on the greens of the hole.
All the excitement of the recent past lay in balance with the anxiety of what was yet to come: the last hole. The revered eighteenth hole was the last bastion. Among the lengthening shadows of the majestic trees a cool comforting breeze seemed to flit around; the golden light of the fading day seemed to be a mother caressing her children to sleep with a soothing, soft lullaby.
My friend was nervous with the apprehension of ending with a 2-over. He hoped for a miracle, yet seemed reconciled to the impossibility of one. Contrasting emotions sound the death knell of one’s concentration in a sport, yet humans often succumb to them.
As usual Ida could read the emotions crisscrossing through my friend, tossing him violently with all their might whilst he searched desperately for something to hold on to. Very casually, yet with underlying understanding of golfing and human behaviour, Ida offered my friend an oatmeal-energizing bar, which he dutifully accepted. As if to soothe him further Ida continued her story. ”The passing away of my father meant that I had to supplement the family income. One of my father’s students offered me this job here at Permata Sentul. I wasn’t aware of my ability of becoming a caddie, but it seemed that the gentleman read me right. Here I am, in a job I enjoy and cherish,” she continued. “My Ibu’s health was failing too since the loss of her companion had pushed her into becoming a recluse. She often regretted not having educated her daughters as she had wished to despite her having steered her family through treacherous tests. Yet she believed that teaching and training other minds towards a sense of esteem and achievement could fulfill her life too. And so she continued to teach with diligence, in the firm hope that one of her students would make it to a position of respect and seniority in life. This dream of hers fructified when Bapak Agung, her student, was appointed one of the youngest advisors to the present President of our country. But destiny plays strange hands Pak, because the day my Ibu’s student was appointed was the day she suffered a stroke and slipped into coma. It seems she was overjoyed and this led her to near death. Strange indeed are the ways of fate”, remarked Ida.
The silence surrounding us could be cut with a knife. My friend and I were unable to break out of the sense of gloom and sadness that had descended on us. Here too, it was a strangely calm, almost happy Ida who announced that “It’s my Ibu’s birthday today Pak! I need you to finish this game well so that I can go be with her as soon as possible.”
This last bit seemed to galvanize us both with hope. My friend seemed to have found a mission to accomplish: it seemed he wished to play that last hole as a tribute to the indomitable grit of the two women we’d spent the last few hours with: Ida Fitri and her Ibu. As for me, I felt the hollow within me slowly filling up. A part of me felt that Ida’s infection for living was rubbing the numbness off my dulled senses.
Ida broke the ice with her characteristic smile and handed the appropriate club to my friend. "All yours Pak!” she said softly guiding him to aim to a spot from where the ball may roll down and land nearest to the 18th hole. 
Nervousness intermingled with hope inside me as I watched my friend attempt his shot. Standing closest to him was Ida, like an extension of my friend’s body. She shut her eyes as my friend swung his club: she too was human indeed; hoping for an outcome that was possible yet almost miraculous, Ida finally displayed the emotions that I knew were within her, never mind the dark caves and tunnels she had negotiated in the past. She opened her eyes as the ball hit the ground with a thud, remained still as if listening to the movement of the ball on the slope, peered for a moment, leapt in the air and threw her long sinewy arms around my friend; hugging him tight, she screamed, "Itu keajaiban Pak! (It’s magic Mister!)! You have a 'hole - in - one'! Alhamdulillah!"
It seemed Ida had seen all that we had missed: my friend and I were too stupefied for words, time stood still and we were the statues that adorned the moment. Our emotions seemed huddled between us all. So much had happened in the past few hours, it seemed like the course of a lifetime, and the formation of a bond that held together a sport called golf and a life of values and humanity. Even nature seemed to applaud my friend’s feat. The green foliage seemed to be throwing a sheet of golden light around him as if in exuberance of his courage in bouncing back from the jaws of escapism. Ida’s little melody awakened me to reality once again…"Jangan Berhenti Mencintaiku” (don’t forget to love me)…
My friend finished at par.
Ida carried a birthday gift of deep gratitude from us - two strangers - to her mother.
As we walked back, I wondered: were the past few hours a lesson on the game of golf or on the art of life? To me it seemed like both, saddened though I was at the amazing crests and troughs in the life of an incredible Ida. My mind slowly seemed made up: I wasn’t going to pick up golf, I’d rather learn Ida’s melody forever…."Jangan Berhenti Mencintaiku” (don’t forget to love me)…

-       Mrityunjay 
mrityunjay.61@gmail.com


Monday, February 6, 2012

ईश्वर तो वो ले गए



जब से उन्होंने चुन लिए पंथ-सम्प्रदाय, 
मुक्ति के सारे बंद हुए उपाय;
अब तो सोचा है केवल पाप ही करेंगे,
ईश्वर तो वो ले गए,
बस हम-आप ही रहेंगे!.....

                   -मृत्युंजय-
 कोलकाता
१३.०१.२०१२ 

काव्यानुवाद की समस्याएँ



आदरणीय कृपा शंकर भाई, इस अनुष्ठान में उपस्थित श्रद्धेय साहित्य के मनीषीगण, अतिथिगण, अखबारनवीश दोस्तों, भाईओं और बहनों!

आप सबको सादर प्रणाम करता हूँ और आभारी हूँ कि आपने मुझे इस विशेष चर्चा का हिस्सा बनाया.

साहित्य की शास्त्रीय शिक्षा और विधानों से मैं वंचित रहा हूँ, लेकिन साहित्य के प्रति भावनात्मक लगाव और अनुराग मेरी धमनियों में ईश्वरतत्त्व की तरह बचपन से पलता रहा. जो कुछ भी मैं लिखता, पढ़ता या गाता हूँ, यह सब उस विराट के प्रति मेरा नमन भाव है जो मस्तिस्क के स्तर पर चढ़ कर बोलता है. मैं शुरुआत में ही अपनी उन गलतियों के लिए माफ़ी मांगना चाहूँगा जो अनजाने में मुझसे शायद हो जाएँ. आशा है आपसे सब से मुझे वह अभयदान मिलेगा जो एक अबोध बालक को अपने बड़ों से सहज ही मिलता है. 

आज के विषय-वस्तु पर मैं जो कुछ भी बोलने जा रहा हूँ, वह सब मेरे अपने अनुभव और भावों की अभिव्यक्ति है, ना कि किसी शास्त्रीय विचार या विचारधारा का अनुगामी.

'अनुवाद' तकनीकी रूप से किसी विशेष भाषा में उपजे शब्दों को किसी अन्य भाषा में अभिव्यक्त करने की प्रक्रिया का नाम है। इस परिभाषा के परिप्रेक्ष्य में यदि हम आज की विषय-वस्तु को देखें, तो समस्या कोई है ही नहीं. फिर तो किसी भी रचना के अनुवादन के लिए किसी दक्षता की आवश्यकता ही नहीं. बस एक शब्द-कोष उठायें और शुरू हो जाएँ! वस्तुतः एक अनुवादन या रूपांतरण के समय समस्या तकनीक समझने के स्तर पर तो होती ही नहीं; समस्या बहुस्तरीय रूप में रचना-सापेक्ष हो कर उभरती है: जैसे बिम्ब, स्थान-विशेष सांस्कृतिक संज्ञाएँ एवं क्रियाएँ, भावपरक परिस्थितियों का आयोजन, भाव प्रसार, उपमा-उपमेय, तुलनात्मक क्रियाओं से उत्पन्न बहुमुखी भाव-आयोजन, देशज शब्द, मुहावरे, लोकोक्तियाँ इत्यादि.

इनके अतिरिक्त भी कई ऐसी समस्याएँ हैं जो अनुवादक पाठकों की सम-सामयिक जागरूकता और भावनाओं के परिप्रेक्ष्य में महसूस करता है. उदाहरण के तौर पर: लिली या डैफ़ोडिल के फूलों का प्रतीक या बिम्ब एशियाई देशों के पाठक की जागरूकता के परे है. यद्यपि उनका वर्णन क़िताबों के जरिये एक पाठक जान लेता है, किन्तु उस प्रतीक के द्वारा जिस भाव का, जिस रूप एवं परिमाण में सम्प्रेषण होना चाहिए, नहीं हो पाता। समान रूप से  पश्चिमी देशों के पाठक भी हमारे ' केतकी, गुलाब, जूही, चम्पक वन फूले' का अर्थ तो समझ जाते है, पर इसमें छुपे भावों का सम्प्रेषण उनपर उस रूप में नहीं हो पाता जैसा कि हमारे अपने देशी पाठकों पर. और इसलिए, अर्थ समझ जाने के बाद भी उनमें वो भाव विह्वलता नहीं आ पाती जिससे अभिभूत हो हम 'वाह,वाह' कर उठते है. कविगुरु की 'सागरिका' इसलिए ही बाली प्रदेश के लोगों को अंग्रेजी अनुवाद पढ़ने के बाद भी वो भाव उद्दीपन न दिला सकी जो शायद अपेक्षित थी. वही भाव उद्दीपन उनमें तब देखने को मिला जब हमने उस कृति पर आधारित एक गीति नाट्य प्रस्तुत किया, जहाँ संगीत, उनके अपने परिवेश के बिम्ब और उनकी अपनी भाव मुद्राएँ देखने को मिलीं .  स्वाभाविक है कि एक अनुवादक को ऐसे ही भाव सम्प्रेषण हेतु कई बार मूल काव्य रूप से हटकर नए बिम्बों या उपमावों का सृजन करना पड़ता है, जिसे शास्त्रीय विधान में शायद एक व्यतिक्रम माना जायेगा;  लेकिन वो मूल काव्य के सूक्ष्म भावों को उजागर करने के लिए आवश्यक हैं.
हिंदी के साथ-साथ बांग्ला, मराठी, गुजराती, तेलुगु, कन्नड़, नेपाली, ब्रज, अवधि आदि  - सारी क्षेत्रीय भाषाओं में तत्सम शब्दों के अलावा बहुतायत से देशज शब्दों का भी दैनिक प्रयोग होता है जो उनके साहित्य में भी दिखते हैं. ये शब्द, लोकोक्तियाँ या मुहावरे एक विशेष सांस्कृतिक परिवेश और परिदृश्य को दर्शाते हैं. इनसे बनीं उपमाएँ या बिम्ब-आयोजन उन लोक-जीवन और परम्पराओं को उजागर करती हैं जिससे कि एक विशेष जनसँख्या-समूह की भावना जुडी होती है. अनुवाद निश्चित रूप से इन रचनाओं को इनकी सीमाओं से बाहर निकालकर इनको सर्वव्यापी बनाने का प्रयास है. इस प्रयास में बहुधा अनुवाद की भाषा एवं उस भाषा को बोलने-समझने वालों के अनुरूप प्रतीक, बिम्ब एवं लोकोक्तियों को रूपांतरित करना अनुवादक का धर्म बन जाता है; और इस धर्म के पालन में कई बार ऊँच-नींच हो जाना स्वाभाविक है. देखना हमें ये चाहिए कि कथावस्तु या कथ्य से जुड़े भाव उद्दीपन एवं भाव-प्रसार का समुचित पालन हुआ है या नहीं.

कालिदास रचित 'मेघदूत' का पद्यांतर करते समय भी मुझे ऐसी ही कई दुविधाओं और कठिनाईओं का सामना करना पड़ा. हालाँकि मेरे पद्यांतर में कुछ मूलभूत अंतर भी लाने पड़े, क्योंकि मेरे पद्यांतर का उद्देश्य और मनोवैज्ञानिक भाव क्षेत्र थोड़ा भिन्न है. मुझे 'मेघदूत' में निहित तुहिन-तरल प्राकृतिक सौंदर्य, अल्हड़ श्रृंगार और यक्षिणी कि वेदना के साथ-साथ यक्ष कि वेदना को भी मुखर करना था, जिसके लिए २० से २५ छंदों कि स्वतंत्र रूप से रचना करनी पड़ी. प्राकृतिक सौंदर्य की महिमा के साथ-साथ उस त्रासदी को भी दिखाना था, जो सम्प्रति उसके सुन्दर मुख को मलिन करती है और सौंदर्य को क्षीण:  "ऐ मेघ! तेरे तन पर जो दिखती मुझको श्यामल छाया/ तूने भी क्या विरह में जलकर पाई ऐसी काया? या फिर, जगत के दूषण से है मलिन तुम्हारा जल भी/ रोते नयनों से रिसता है आँखों का काजल भी?" जब इस अपनी रचना का मैंने अंग्रेजी छंदों में अनुवाद करना शुरू किया तब कई बिम्बों की स्थानीयता और भाव प्रवणता के प्रश्न ने मुझे आ घेरा. 'नीलकंठ' को न चाहते हुए भी मुझे ‘Indigo Neck Pheasant’ और 'कल्पतरु' को ‘Wish-Tree’ की संज्ञा देनी पड़ी जो थोड़ी ओछी जान पड़ती है. अंग्रेजी भाषा की तुलना में संस्कृत, बांग्ला और हिंदी भाषा संज्ञाओं एवं भाव् -विशेषणों के पर्यायवाची में धनी है; यह एक अंग्रेजी अनुवादक के लिए इतना दुरूह सिद्ध होता है कि कई बार दिनों तक एक स्थान पर ही अंटके रहने पर विवश करता है  और रचना की भाव सम्पूर्णता में भी बाधक होता है, विशेषकर ऐसे पाठकों के लिए जो बहुभाषी हैं और हिंदी एवं अंग्रेजी दोनों ही स्वरूपों की समझ रखते है. निश्चित रूप से उन पाठकों को अंग्रेजी अनुवाद थोड़ा ढीला और बेअसर सा लगेगा, किन्तु ये अनुवादक की मजबूरी है. चूँकि मेरी मंशा ये भी थी कि हिंदी पद्यांतर और उसका अंग्रेजी अनुवाद दोनों ही साधारण पाठकों को सहज रूप में हासिल हो ताकि उनमें वो आसक्ति और भाव उद्दीपन बना रहे जिसके जरिये मैं कालिदास कि भाव-भव्यता से उनका परिचय कराना चाहता हूँ,  मैंने  यथासंभव सहजतम शब्दों का चयन किया. अनुवादक के लिए यह बहुत ही ज़रूरी होता है कि वह मूल रचना के भाव-प्रसार और उसके अपेक्षित भाव उद्दीपन से दूर न भटक जाएँ, साथ ही पाठकों के देश, काल और परिस्थिति जन्य सीमाओं का भी अतिक्रमण न हो. अनुवाद के आलोचकों से मेरा निवेदन रहेगा कि शब्दों या छंदों के भाव एवं अर्थ को उनकी प्रासंगिक परिधि में ही रख कर मूल्यायन करें, ना कि एक स्वतंत्र इकाई या अणु के रूप में.

Sunday, December 4, 2011

Language Policy of India: My Key-Note Speech in Jakarta Pusat Bahasa


Language refers to the framework of the trichotomy ‘form, meaning, function’ shaping ideas and beliefs through which an individual interprets the world and interacts with it. The language of a people reflects the ‘World view’ of that people in the form of its syntactic structures and untranslatable connotations and its denotations. The Linguistic Relativity hypothesis of Benjamin Lee Whorf describes how the syntactic-semantic structure of a language becomes an underlying structure for the ‘World View’ of a people through the organization of the causal perception of the world and the linguistic categorization of entities. As linguistic categorization emerges as a representation of worldview and causality, it further modifies social perception and thereby leads to a continual interaction between language and perception. The thesis gets further support and legitimacy through the works of Stephen Levinson and his team at the Max Planck Institute for psycholinguistics at Nijmegen, Netherlands and the work of Lera Boroditsky at Stanford University. The construction of worldview begins from fragments of worldviews offered to us by the different scientific disciplines and the various systems of knowledge which is essentially imparted through language.
There is an inseparable relationship between language and culture too. Can a language be taught without a supporting cultural symbols and cognitive expressions? Language is not just an abstract system; it is embedded in the culture it belongs to geographically. Without a social and cultural awareness, the beginning of learning a language does not take place. Children in the process of enculturation develop the required awareness of the cultural meanings of a word in a particular culture-specific context and place.
Thao Le of Faculty of Education, Tasmania University, Australia illustrates the same through an experiment. Children were asked what the word ‘Teacher’ and ‘neighbour’ mean to them; answers are as follows:
-          ‘Teacher’ is someone who teaches at school and makes sure that you learn well. In High Schools, you have different teachers for different subjects (English)
-          ‘Teacher’ is the one who knows what is best for you. They teach you the right things. You should show them your respect. (Vietnamese)
Whereas the first response indicates an orientation towards academic role and achievement, the second one explains the social role of a teacher. It refers to wisdom and cultural values attached to the word.
Let us take Indonesian example where a teacher is called ‘Guru’. Now, the term ‘Guru’ has its origin in Sanskrit which comprises of two syllables ‘Gu’ and ‘Ru’. ‘Gu’ denotes the spiritual ignorance that most of us suffer from, and ‘Ru’ means the radiance of knowledge that dispels the ignorance. In short, ‘Guru’ is the one who dispels the darkness of ignorance with the radiance of knowledge.
-          ‘Neighbour’ is someone who lives next door (English)
-          ‘Neighbour’ is the one who lives together with you in the same area. (Vietnamese)
The first response indicates the culture-specific individualism, whereas the second one reflects on the collectivism and community with emphasis on words ‘Live together’ and ‘same’. Even the Bahasa-Indonesia word ‘Tetangga’ is described by the locals as ‘People living around us’, which again reflects the collectivism aspect of the society.
The abovementioned experiment and example shows how language relates to the social, intellectual and emotional make up of a child living in a particular geographical area and social milieu. “Children are not passive language users. They are constantly engaged in creative construction with language” sums up Thao Le in his article ‘Children’s World of Words: A Developemental Perspective’
In this backdrop, I would like to reflect upon the historical development and the present Indian scenario of dealing with its 1652 known languages and the lessons learnt there from.
HISTORY:
Right since the revelation of hieroglyphic Indus script which is probably logo phonetic, in that it has both signs used for their meanings, and signs used for their phonetic values, India experienced layers of evolution of both civilizational development and the development of languages and scripts. The Indus Valley Civilization was succeeded by Vedic people around 2500 BC with Sanskrit as the principal language of communication, at least among the elite and the ruling classes of the society. The earliest Sanskrit verses of Vedas testify that Sanskrit had evolved in to a full-fledged language by this time. We have three stages of "Indic-vedic Sanskrit". Vedic and classical Sanskrit is often referred to as Old Indic, and the Prakrits as Middle Indic which may date about 400 BC to 1000 AD. The Middle Indic dialect on which we have most information is Pali; the language in which Gautama Buddha preached and Buddhist canon is preserved. At the end of the Middle Indic period we have materials known as Apbhramsas meaning 'off-branching'. From Apbhramsas developed the modern Indic dialects. Most widely spoken of these is Hindi. Others are Urdu, Bengali, Gujarati, Marathi, Punjabi, Sinhalese in Ceylon and Romany, the language of Gypsies.  Because of its religious associations, Sanskrit is in daily use even today.
The Kharosthi Script was more or less contemporary to the Brahmi script, appearing around the 3rd century BC mainly in modern-day northern Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan, although some examples do occur in India. Like Brahmi, Kharosthi seemed to have been developed for Prakrit dialects (which was the common speech of everyday life as opposed to Sanskrit which was the liturgic language). Eventually the Kharosthi Script fell out of use by the 3rd or 4th century CE and the descendent of Brahmi eventually took hold in the northwestern South Asian.
Devanāgarī is part of the Brahmic family of scripts of India, Nepal, Tibet, and South-East Asia. It is a descendant of the Gupta Script, along with Siddham and Sharada. Eastern variants of Gupta called Nāgarī are first noticed from the 8th century. From 1200 AD onward they gradually replaced Siddham, which survived as a vehicle for Tantric Buddhism in East Asia, and Sharada, which remained in parallel use in Kashmir.
The Mughal Empire that preceded the rule of the East India Company in India was a multilingual empire. People of different ethnic backgrounds with diverse dialects and languages comprised the Mughal Empire. The Mughals and the sultans who ruled various parts of India employed Persian and Arabic as the language of courts and administration, but the last few centuries of the Mughal rule saw the progressive emergence of Urdu, an idiom and speech that was an admixture of Persian, Arabic, and Hindi, with Hindi syntax and lexicon providing the base. Urdu was being established as a language of communication during the rule of Akbar. However, it was during the rule of Shah Jehan that Urdu attained the status and recognition of a court language.
There were at least fourteen to sixteen major languages spoken in the various kingdoms and princely states when East India Company became the paramount ruler of India. As far as language is concerned, they followed the tradition of using the Persian and Arabic languages for communication with the natives wherever such languages had been used in the Mughal Empire.
The British have been using English within the East India Company for all purposes. However, for communication with the Indian people, they tried to use the local languages or a language that had been in use in the past.  Soon a body of people learned English and, when job opportunities were open with the government, these people who had learned and demonstrated their skill in English got jobs in the government. This created a demand among the Indians that they be given opportunities to learn English in the schools. Slowly demands were made in favor of the teaching and learning of English rather than Persian, Arabic, or Sanskrit. Soon the government began to curtail spending funds on the learning of Persian, Arabic, or Sanskrit.
A momentous decision was taken in the year 1835 by Thomas Babington Macaulay (later Lord Macaulay), that tilted the balance in favor of teaching English and European sciences and technology in the public schools supported by the government funds.
It was an amorphous character of content and utility of the Indian languages coupled with a desire to modernize the thinking and behavior of Indian mass by some social reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy that paved the way for establishing hegemony of English language in the post-mutiny years (after 1857) of British India. However, the British remained conscious of making their officers in administration learn the local vernacular languages to facilitate better communication and understanding of the ground realities.
Indian National Congress (formed in 1885) in its first-ever sitting in Bombay never considered language policy to be of paramount consequence even though it endeavoured to achieve cohesion and unity of thought and people. The participants had with them a language, English, which they all knew, and with which they could communicate with one another. It was Partition of Bengal in 1905 by Lord Curzon that brought linguistic issue and category to the fore. However, the issue of language or, lingua franca was carefully avoided by the nation builders and leaders knowing the complications it may pose and the sinister shape it may take in the hands of the British masters.
Though ‘Hindustani’, an indigenous syncretic mixture of native words, idioms & phrases, Arabic, Persian and Sanskrit, had evolved to act as lingua franca for the Indian National Congress’ deliberations, strong use of Marathi, Telegu, Bengali and Punjabi kept dominating the intense political activities and Press at regional level. It was after the ‘Two-Nation Theory dye’ was cast Muslim League emphasized the importance of Urdu, whereas the Congress aimed at the evolution of a national lingua Franca based on Hindustani. For the Indian National Congress, since the advent of Gandhi, Hindustani was the lingua franca unifying both the Hindus and Muslims, the former generally preferring to write it in Devanagari and the latter writing it only in the Perso-Arabic, according to the underlying perceptions and assumptions of the Congress.
The issue finally became a very potent tool in the hands of British to foment disaffection and create schism among the most ardent believers of freedom. As Professor Paul Brass points out, 'the Hindi-Urdu controversy by its very bitterness demonstrates how little the objective similarities between language groups matter when people add subjective value & significance to their languages. Willingness to communicate through the same language is quite different thing from the mere ability to communicate' (Brass 1974).
Right from the election manifesto prepared by Indian National Congress in 1945 to the final framing and adoption of the Constitution on 26 January 1950, protection of territorial culture, language and script of the minorities and of the different linguistic areas remained the part of both the ‘Fundamental right’ and ‘Constitutional right’ of every Indian in the independent India. It was this embittered past that gave our leaders and constitution makers a vision to tread carefully and proceed with a very open mind and heart to deal with the issue of languages in India.
Extreme caution, at times, leads to blunders; and, that is what happened once the issue of official language was touched upon in 1950 by forming a Language Commission which decided to adopt the Soviet model developed and implemented by Lenin in USSR in 1920s and by Stalin in 1930s. The ‘Russian’ language was substituted by ‘Hindi’, turning a blind eye to the differences which bore disastrous consequences.
The issue of language transcended its normative limits and became a regional issue. Non-hindi states, esp. Tamil and Bengali reacted violently and forced their regional leaders to convene a conference of Chief Ministers of states which developed a compromise formula known as the ‘Three Language Formula’ (TLF). The 3 languages are: (i) Home Language/ Regional Language, (ii) English, and (iii) Hindi in non-Hindi speaking states and any other Modern Indian Language in Hindi speaking states.
There is no doubt that this policy “recognizes the historical multilingualism, the linguistic diversity and the reverence for ancient classical languages” (Harold F. Schiffman in “The Politics of Language: Linguistic Culture & Language Policy 1996) and is equipped with the desired potential to succeed than any other imported model in India. Gradually, through the development of institutional support in terms of researches and surveys to correct the omissions and incorporate the new realities, the Indian government has been able to give recognition to those small linguistic groups that are not given control of a territory but have elements to assert as larger groups – e.g., Maithali from Bihar and Konkani of Maharashtra. Despite bringing 22 languages to the 8th schedule of the Constitution, there are still about 20-25 languages expecting the same rights – e.g, Tulu spoken around Mangalore in Karnataka, Bhojpuri spoken in a large parts of Bihar & Uttar Pradesh.
 LANGUAGE POLICY:
The language policy of India is basically embodied in part XVII of the Indian Constitution along with the eighth schedule in reference to articles 344 and 351 (which specify the languages of India for purposes mentioned in these two articles), and the articles concerning fundamental rights regarding language, education, and culture etc.
The language policy gives full freedom to the states to choose any language or languages spoken in regions as their regional languages and to have one or more of them as official languages by different states. However, for the Union, the Constitution prescribes Hindi in Devanagari script for official purposes along with English as an associate official language.
The Language Policy of India relating to the use of languages in administration, education, judiciary, legislature, mass communication, etc., is pluralistic in its scope. It is both language-development oriented and language-survival oriented.
The policy is intended to encourage the citizens to use their mother tongue in certain delineated levels and domains through some gradual processes, but the stated goal of the policy is to help all languages to develop.
The 8th Schedule of Indian Constitution acts as a tool to bargain and gain benefits for the languages. Once a language gets into this club, its nomenclature itself will change, status will change, and it will be called Modern Indian Language (MIL), Scheduled Language (SL), etc. This Schedule has emerged as the most important language policy statement. It clusters thousands of written and unwritten languages and dialects into two broad categories of scheduled and Non-Scheduled languages.
            The languages of the Schedule have preferential treatment, and the languages listed in this schedule are considered first for any and almost every language development activity. They are bestowed with all facilities including facilities to absorb language technology initiatives of the government.
With all these provisions for education in multiple languages and mother tongues, the Sixth All India Education Survey (1999) informs that 41 languages are taught as school languages, and 19 of them are used as media of instruction at different levels.
CONCLUSION:
As religion, propagation of a Universal or single Language too, is a utopian expression of conflicting human fantasy and rival claims of sanity. The more it takes the pretense of reason, the more it grows hollow and comical. John Gray in ‘Grey’s Anatomy’ succinctly explains that “all conflicts between rival claims about the best life for humankind are collisions of illusions”; and I think, Universal Language falls into this category.
Inasmuch they prescribe a single bond of identity, they fall incompatible with the truth of value-pluralism. If there is anything distinctive about the mankind, it is that it can thrive in a variety of ways as depicted by our experience and evidences of history.
However, there has always been a proven relevance of utility-based minimum standards that lay ground for a peaceful co-existence among people of diverse language, dialects and scripts who always remain different despite sharing common nationality and geo-political boundaries.
 India’s tryst with its myriad languages, dialects and diverse culture supports the aforesaid thesis well with its successful implementation of adopting languages to enrich its basket of multilingual and multicultural democracy. We have learnt that a multilingual, multicultural state does not wither away, nor does a single-language nation become infallible by not giving room for any dispute or dissension. “The end of toleration is not consensus. It is co-existence.”Said Thomas Hobbes; and I think I would better subscribe this view.